Open Theism and Evangelicalism
Abstract
When thinking about the knowledge of
God or his power, humanity has struggled to find sufficient answers to how God
has these attributes. The goal in this discourse is to see if a more modern
option is evangelical or not. Open Theism has many proponents and has received
significant backlash from its more conservative counterparts. Does Open Theism
diminish the knowledge and/ or power of God? To what extent does this occur?
The primary focus is to find if one can hold to an open view of God yet remain
evangelical and to know if it is a viable option for Christians.
Outline
Introduction
Understanding
Omniscience
Defining
Omniscience
Views
of Omniscience
Understanding
the Openness of God
What
does Clark Pinnock Believe
Critiques
Is
Pinnock's View Evangelical
Conclusion
Introduction
Discussing how God must or must not
be is a complex topic to navigate due to the level of emotions attached to the
idea of God. The goal within this discourse is to investigate the openness of
God view, hopefully keeping negative emotions at bay, to discover if what they
hold to be true of God has merit. The specific opinions being assessed are
those put forward by Clark Pinnock; however, as one of the primary proponents
of this position, his views will invariably overlap with others. The open view
holds, "God, in grace, grants humans significant freedom to cooperate with
or work against God's will for their lives, and he enters into dynamic,
give-and-take relationships with us."[1] As
Pinnock notes, the open view is based on understanding God's knowledge (and
choice) and human freedom.
The brunt of the material herein
will be an analysis and attempted understanding of what would constitute the
move towards the open view and if this view is a viable option for evangelical
Christians. The first step will be to look at Omniscience and human freedom.
One cannot take a meaningful position without understanding what constitutes
both and how they relate. Second, there will be an analysis of Pinnock and his
beliefs about God (specifically, God's Omniscience and human freedom). After
these are reviewed, an attempt will be made to provide a thoughtful evaluation
of Pinnock and how he fits into orthodox/ evangelical Christianity.
Understanding Omniscience
Before anyone can understand the
conversation, there needs to be a basic understanding of Omniscience. The goal
here is to define, describe, and note any differences between the traditional
and open view of God. Some sub-categories within this discussion affect how one
understands it. When talking about God's knowledge, we must also understand how
this relates to human freedom (if at all). The primary question in people's
minds is if God knows that I will do something, do I still have freedom (in any
meaningful sense)? There seems to be a fundamental difference between the
traditional view of God and the open view. These are the points of discussion
here, and hopefully, they can be sifted through clearly.
Defining Omniscience
The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy defines Omniscience as "the property of having complete or
maximal knowledge."[2]
This seems to be a decent starting point for understanding God's knowledge. The
problem arises when either a new definition of Omniscience is given or how one
determines what classifies as knowledge. The primary issue within the
discussion of God's knowledge is that the literature is not strictly consistent
on what constitutes maximal knowledge or complete knowledge. This issue will
take some fleshing out to get to the heart of the discussion.
Swinburne suggests that Omniscience
is "to say that P is omniscient at T if and only if he knows at T all true
propositions."[3]
Now, Swinburne does (throughout his chapter) provide deeper insights but also
distinguishes between a strong and weak sense of Omniscience. Nuance is
understood and shows a thoughtful approach, but for Christians, there seems to
be the guiding principle, as laid out by Saint Anselm, that God is that which
nothing greater can be conceived. This is important to keep at the forefront of
our minds because if God does exist, then it seems reasonable to assume that he
must necessarily be the greatest possible thing. If something could be possibly
greater than God, then that thing would be God. The primary reason for bringing
this issue to the fore is that considering some weakened sense of Omniscience
seems to defeat the purpose of understanding God in the highest terms. This is
in no way to argue for or against what was stated above but to supply a line of
thinking as this process progresses.
The difficulty in this topic is that
assuming everyone agrees on a definition are the possible distinctions some
will make within a particular description. For example, it may be acceptable
that Omniscience is equal to maximal knowledge; however, some may distinguish
between logically possible and logically impossible things. In essence, God
would be unable to know logically impossible things because they could never be
the case. Similarly, Hasker makes distinctions like this (along with most
philosophers), "the distinction I have in mind is between knowing
propositions about the future and knowing the concrete events of the future."[4]
These distinctions are important, but it establishes camps that essentially do
not or cannot agree on exact terms. This makes the discussion more convoluted.
As a result of this, the laity is left in the dust, and polemics are high.
With that said, this discourse may
be accused of being overly simplistic or not providing enough nuance to understand
God's greatness better. However, the goal is not to be simplistic but to be as
accurate as possible, and sometimes the best approach in difficult situations
like this is to simplify and then build up from there. The definition of Omniscience
assumed herein is God knows all possible things to know. This idea is based on
God's mind and his ability to intimately understand his creatures' workings. In
the
conceptualist
model of divine knowledge, God does not acquire his knowledge of the world by
anything like perception. His knowledge of the future is not based on his 'looking'
ahead and 'seeing' what lies in the future (a terribly anthropomorphic notion
in any case). Rather, God's knowledge is self-contained; it is more like a mind's
knowledge of innate ideas. As an omniscient being, God has essentially the
property of knowing all true propositions; there are true propositions about
future contingents; ergo, God knows all true propositions concerning future
contingents.[5]
This definition of
God's knowledge seems to be the highest understanding. God, as creator and
sustainer, knows how all things work together and individually because he has
an innate understanding of the things he creates. This can be thought of as God
can conceptualize how a project will go and see all the possible variables within
that project. This understanding leads to God knowing all possible things to
know based on the potential actions of everything that he made because it was
based on a blueprint (i.e., gravity acts as such, humans act as such, and
individuals can act in such and such ways, etc.). The definition provided here
is how the evaluation portion of this paper will go, and it is the underlying
assumption that pervades as moving throughout.
One last thing that must be pointed
out that can significantly affect the acceptability of one's view of Omniscience
is do you think human freedom and divine knowledge are compatible or not. "Compatibilists
about free will maintain that free will is compatible with determinism, and
incompatibilists disagree [sic]."[6]
This is one sense in which the issue can be thought of. However, Helm breaks
this down into three concepts: God's knowledge causes things, God's knowledge
comes after his decree, and God's knowledge is before his decree and is
conditioned on that decree.[7]
These include how certain aspects of reality are prioritized and what one finds
most important to maintain. For example, if someone does not accept that God
decrees all things (determinism), then they will not accept that God gains his
knowledge based on his actions. There is a strong connection (in the
literature) between God's knowledge and human freedom and how these relate. It
seems that the direction one takes in developing their concept of God's knowledge
is heavily based on prior assumptions/ preferences based on their understanding
of Scripture or philosophy. There is not enough space to parse out all the
particulars in this case, but some basic views of Omniscience will be laid out,
and then a focused section on Pinnock will follow.
Views of Omniscience (Focus on Pinnock)
A common feature of most proponents
of Divine Omniscience is that they affirm that God knows all there is to know.
However, this typically means different things to different people. This means
that although one person may affirm that God knows all there is to know, person
A may say that this knowledge includes everything, but person B states it only
includes possible things. There are particular nuances that each writer in this
area focuses on, and thus it makes this attribute of God a little more
difficult to nail down (at least a consensus).
William Hasker states, "God is
omniscient = It is impossible that God should at any time believe what is false
or fail to know any true proposition such that his knowing that proposition at
the time is logically possible."[8]
For Hasker, this means that what is not real or has not been decided by the
free agent is not possible, at least in some sense. It essentially comes down
to the person's decision ultimately determining the truth value of that
proposition, in which case God must wait to know what is true, in cases dealing
with free agents.
Some view God's knowledge as
essentially determinative. What God knows is what humans do. But this leads one
to theological fatalism and a universe where nothing is free. Yet some hold
that God knows all things, but his knowledge is based on the free choices of
creatures. The muddy waters of this issue make it extremely difficult to find a
resolution. Clark Pinnock states, "God has sovereignly decided to make
some of his actions contingent on our requests and actions."[9]
Pinnock also says, "God chooses to exercise a general rather than a
meticulous providence, allowing space for us to operate and for God to be
resourceful in working with it."[10]
Here, one can see that Pinnock is stating that God has sovereignty, and it is
through God's sovereignty that he has allowed his knowledge to be subject.
One final aspect of Omniscience that
is important to note is how we understand God in this sense. Many will take a
strictly philosophical approach to the topic. However, as Christians, we claim
to have a direct revelation from God. Christianity is fundamentally a
revelatory religion. Christians need to formulate an understanding of God that
is thoroughly based on Scripture. Pinnock affirms that Scripture should be the
fountain from which we drink. For Pinnock, he places the authority of the Bible
above other things and distinguishes between the importance of philosophy and
revelation. He says, "It is one thing for philosophy to provide categories
to help us say what we want to say based on revelation, but quite another thing
to adopt a worldview that has been developed apart from revelation and allow it
to dominate us hermeneutically."[11]
Understanding the Openness of God
The open view of God has its presuppositions
(same as the most conservative views). Before a view can be critiqued, it must
be understood at the most fundamental level. So, what is it that has caused the
openness proponents to take the position they have? Hopefully, some of these
reasons can be parsed out here. Rice states, "love is the most important
quality we attribute to God, and love is more than care and commitment; it
involves being sensitive and responsive as well."[12]
Love must be freely given, or else it is not true love. Openness theologians genuinely
care about the love of God and the reciprocal love that humanity gives back to
God. The God of the Bible is one who "desires" mankind to give love
back to him meaningfully, which must be given in a libertarian sense. The most
fundamental presupposition of openness theology is that God is, was, and will
always be love.
As divine love is the foundation for
their theological system, the classical understanding must go through changes
or at least be modified. This is not due to some misunderstanding of classical Theism
but rather that if God is love, then there are implications that follow. If
humans are free (libertarian), then God's knowledge will be affected, and he
will know things as they happen.[13]
Openness theologians also view Scripture in a slightly different light. The
descriptions of God as being surprised or relenting from an already chosen
judgment cannot be simple anthropomorphisms but rather are metaphors that
should give the reader pause. If Christianity is based on revelation and
revelation says that God repented, the openness proponent does not wave their
hand at Scripture as man writing themselves into the Bible but instead describes
an authentic (though imperfect) description of the nature of God.
What Does Pinnock Believe?
Pinnock does hold to the general aspects
of openness theology. There are aspects of what he thinks that is different
from his cohort. However, some of those things where he differs from his
colleagues are not within the purview of this paper. Pinnock does offer some
insights into openness thinking that are different than the others and also
takes a strong position on being biblical (he desires to adhere to Scripture).
For this reason, he is the focus of openness theology in this discourse.
At bottom, Pinnock thinks that the
surrounding culture, Hellenism, marred early Christianity.[14]
Greek thought is seen as the thing that detracted from biblical revelation. It
was Plato and Aristotle that had the most significant impact on the culture of
the Church, and because of this impact, it affected the way Scripture was read.
In Pinnock's view, openness theology is a getting back to a biblical picture of
Yahweh. The theologians of old had made it a point to produce a philosophically
strong version of God without realizing its implications on his attributes and
what that meant for humanity. As noted above, Pinnock thinks that philosophy is
good when left in its lane, but it is revelation that calls the shots.
Philosophy helps to define categories and allows the language of the discussion
to proceed forward. However, divine revelation is the source of the
informational content of the discussion, not philosophy.
Pinnock bases his claims on the idea
that classical Christian theists have allowed Greek thinking to influence their
interpretation of Scripture. A more biblically accurate method of
interpretation is required (according to Pinnock) if the Christian is to be
faithful to God and Christ. The classical theist tends to "see the text in
'cut and dried' terms, and they emphasize the Bible's rational/ propositional
character."[15]
For Pinnock, this way of viewing Scripture has limits and invariably hinders
the interpretation and word from God to the Church. The justification for
moving beyond this type of hermeneutical method is Jesus. Pinnock points to Jesus'
use of Old Testament passages about His ministry. This is called the Scripture
principle.[16]
All of this culminates into the view of Spirit-hermeneutics, which Pinnock
thinks is the best course of action when thinking about God's word. Using this
Spirit-driven hermeneutic is not simply "cut and dried" but rather
"balanced and nuanced" and used by Jesus and the disciples.[17]
By using the tools at your disposal (the Spirit), the Christian has more
freedom to interpret God's word accurately.
For Pinnock, "the main emphasis
of open theism is that God created the world for loving relations."[18] Love
is the quintessential component of the creative act and is found within the
triune Godhead.[19]
Love is based on the nature of God and is found throughout the biblical
narrative. He believes that love is not love unless it is freely given, which
requires that humanity has libertarian free will. Due to the relationality of
reality, God, and creation, it required God to adjust the level of sovereignty
that he exhibited in the world. Pinnock clearly states, "It (open theism)
holds that God could control the world if he wished to but that he has chosen
not to do so for the sake of loving relationships."[20]
There is no question in Pinnock's mind that God is fully capable of a Calvinistic
level of sovereignty, but it is within this sovereignty that God has chosen a
self-limitation in his use of it. Without this limitation set by God, the world
would exist as a deterministic reality, which does not work with the divine
drama in Scripture.
Openness theology seeks to be
scriptural in its approach to God and his nature. Because this is the case,
Jesus Christ heavily influences how Pinnock (and others) view the nature of the
Father. Barth gets to the heart of openness thinking and Pinnock by saying,
Who
God is and what it is to be divine is something we have to learn where God has
revealed Godself. We may believe that God can and must only be absolute in
contrast to all that is relative, exalted in contrast to all that is lowly,
active in contrast to all suffering, inviolable in contrast to all temptation,
transcendent in contrast to all immanence, and therefore divine in contrast to
everything human, in short that God can and must be only the Wholly Other. But
such beliefs are shown to be quite untenable, corrupt, and pagan, by the fact
that God does in fact be and do this in Jesus Christ.[21]
The nature of God's
self-revelation in Jesus Christ must be at the fore of understanding the God of
the Bible (according to Pinnock). This is fundamental Christianity; without Jesus
Christ, there is no Christianity. Pinnock highlights the most prominent feature
within the Church and wants to bring it to the forefront of how theological
thinking is done.
The open view seeks to break the
chains of old and make God accessible to humanity again. Pinnock (and others)
see the classical God as this far-off designer not relationally invested in his
creation. Pinnock likens the major differences between the open view and the classical
view: "the designer of a machine stands back from their work, but the
designer of a community works inside the project and even experiences its
growing pains."[22]
The transcendence of God has been manifestly overstated, and it has been at the
cost of a real and loving God. This goes back to the most important point which
guides open Theism, love. The thinking is that love cannot be love unless it is
experienced and free. But the question is does all of this make the best sense
of what we know?
Critique
As noted above, the primary issue
within this debate is definitional. "The debate over the nature of God's
foreknowledge is primarily a debate about the scope or perfection of God's
knowledge."[23]
Even in Craig's own words, the scope and perfection of God come down to a
matter of definition and understanding. When the word scope is used, it means
how much of something is considered. The problem is that the debaters seem to
be talking past one another. Hopefully, the critique here will be gracious but
not placating. The goal is always to develop and parse out the highest view of
God as possible, and Pinnock believes he has found such a view.
Pinnock has placed the charge
against the church as possessing paganism within its theological structure. Of
course, "in the Mediterranean context, the dominant culture was the Greek
perspective (or Hellenism) that had been spread far and wide by Alexander the
Great,"[24]
but this does not equate to a full submission by the church to this culture. In
fact, throughout the New Testament (NT), the apostles and others often went
against the culture of the time. Now, Pinnock may have in mind the progression
of the church since he regards Scripture as the foundation on which we should
be gaining our theological knowledge. There is some weight to the idea of Greek
philosophy being used in the church with terms such as Logos being used.
Writers during this time would have been influenced by Plato (Justin Martyr and
Philo), and Greek categories would be the easiest way to reach those in the
culture.[25]
As Christians, we are not to love the world (fleshly or anti-God) things, and
yet the church was given the great commission (Matt. 28). If the dominant
culture was Greek, then it makes sense to translate the gospel message and
understanding of God into terms the culture would understand. This has been
done throughout time (e.g., Tillich, Barth, Chesterton, Calvin, Luther, etc.),
and it would be difficult to prove that in every case where translation occurs,
a deviation is also present. To put it simply, Pinnock has overstated his case
here, and it is not that Greek philosophy has thoroughly contaminated biblical
thought, instead the church used the language to further expound upon the
mysteries of God the best way they knew how (Note: that one could argue that
Pinnock's modern philosophy has influenced his theology).
Love is the most fundamental
component of God, and it determines what he will choose to do with creation and
his being. The fact that God is love is a point of non-contention; this is a
pervasive theme throughout the biblical canon. Many can and probably should
sympathize with this understanding of God. It does seem that if God is
perfectly loving, then this would impact what he does and how he does it. This
does not mean that he will adhere to some standard of decision-making as
established by a human being (Rom. 9:20). Rather, it is based on a full-orbed
but imperfect understanding of God as encompassing many attributes, love being
one of them. The only issue here is that it is difficult to see why love should
be the attribute that is elevated above the rest. It appears that Pinnock has
arbitrarily established love as God's greatest and guiding attribute.
Pinnock's answer for how God does
not know future realities is that God has sovereignly decided not to know these
things.[26]
This kenotic theory of Omniscience seems to be marred in problems. It appears
that Omniscience (or any "omni-quality") would be something a person
has or does not have. For example, the thought experiment of God being able to
create a stone too heavy for him to lift is a close representation of what
Pinnock is attempting. If God can create a stone too heavy for him to lift,
then he is not omnipotent. Similarly, it seems that if God can create a world
in which he (though freely chooses) not to know all things, then he is not
omniscient. If we were trying to give someone a surprise and tell them to cover
their eyes and not peek, it is not that the person lacks the ability to see the
surprise because all that must be done is for them to move their fingers. Are
we to think of God as putting up his metaphorical hands to cover his eyes
(knowledge in this case) so he can be surprised by the goings-on of creation?
This seems quite an absurd vision of the great creator God who sustains the
universe.
However, Pinnock's most convincing
thought in favor of his view is that, "we might say that who God is
does not change but what God experiences changes. God's nature
does not change but his activities and relationships are dynamic. God's
character is stable [sic] but God is not static when it comes to associating
with creation."[27]
Here, one can see the intention of Pinnock in keeping the solidarity of God
intact. The issue seems to be marrying the idea of a dynamic and revelational
God with that of a transcendent God. There is an appreciation that should be
given to Pinnock in this case because most theologians are not so bold as to
list the things they find difficult; he is willing to lay it out there for the
community to see.
Pinnock does offer a method for
biblical interpretation but fails to do so within the primary source on Open
Theism (Most Moved Mover). Failing to place this in the primary source hindered
the arguments he was attempting to make. Pinnock notes that he advocates for a
Spirit-hermeneutic, which allows the reader more freedom when finding the
meaning in the text. The problem with this methodology is that it is not
thoroughly explained in his article. Pinnock provides examples of Jesus or the
disciples using this method but fails to delineate what procedures are in this
method. I am not suggesting that a Spirit-hermeneutic is invalid. The issue is
that even if we allow Spiritual gifts, checks and balances need to be in place
and a specified method for determining if each particular instance of a
Spirit-hermeneutic is valid.[28]
Is Pinnock's View Evangelical
First, there needs to be a
definition of evangelicalism that will satisfy all participants to understand
if Pinnock fits into it (neatly or otherwise). Trueman provides a good
rendition of what evangelicalism consists of, "four hallmarks: (1)
biblicism (a high regard for the Bible as the primary course of spiritual
truth), (2) crucicentrism (a focus on the atoning work of Christ on the cross),
(3) conversionism (a belief in the necessity of spiritual conversion), and (4)
activism (the priority of publicly proclaiming and living out the gospel)."[29]
Given this understanding of what it means to be an evangelical, we can proceed
with trying to understand if Pinnock falls within its bounds.
Based on Pinnock's own word, he
believes he is adhering better to the biblical record than classical theists.
Pinnock does seem to attempt to take the biblical record at face value. In his
book, Most Moved Mover, he decries that many who approach the
uncomfortable biblical text tend to attribute what is being said to
anthropomorphisms and the like.[30]
He points out this common exegetical thread within the conservative Christian
community, and it is worth noting. With that said, does his pointing this fact
out prove that he is right? The answer is no. It could be the case that due to
the uniquely human aspects of Scripture (being inspired but written in each
author's style) that the modern person gets those writers' best understanding
of God's character. It does not seem out of bounds to suggest that we can keep
the integrity of the Word, yet say the author (the human) tried to convey a
truth about God that was difficult to understand. But to argue that Pinnock is
straight anti-biblical would be a mischaracterization. We can say that Pinnock
is wrong in his exegetical method, but suggesting he is not trying his best to
adhere to the biblical record would be false.
Pinnock seems to be defined by his
centrality of Jesus Christ. Pinnock points people to the person of Christ in
his writings, and Christ seems to be an interpretative tool for him. It is not
that we could not understand God in any sense without Christ, but it is through
Christ that humanity better understands God. If God is revelational, then as
Christians, Jesus Christ is part of that revelation. Barth (quoted above)
points this out well, all the things we think God cannot be, he became those
things in Jesus Christ. Understanding Christ is no small matter, and it should
have an impact of how we view God (in some sense). Pinnock tries to do this in
his understanding of God's knowledge.
The other two hallmarks of
evangelicalism are not covered in enough detail in Pinnock's works, but some
could be inferred. If Pinnock places such stock in Christ and his life/ work,
it can be assumed that Pinnock would view the Great Commission as vitally
important (i.e., conversionism). Activism would be more difficult to pin down
since the primary focus is on his understanding of Omniscience. Most human
beings are activists in some sense. It is not common for someone to hold a
position and not defend it. With that said, even though some may disagree with
his insights and thoughts on God and his knowledge, it does appear that Pinnock
would fit within evangelicalism (perhaps not so neatly).[31]
Conclusion
Omniscience is a
difficult concept to understand since human beings lack any "omni"
type of qualities. The problem becomes more pronounced when there are
definitional disputes over what would count as the best type of quality to
have. It has been shown that the primary problem in understanding the Omniscience
of God is how it is defined and what qualities it possesses. Side A may see
side B as a lower view of God's knowledge, but the reverse is also true. Before
any progress can be made at mending bridges of understanding, there needs to be
a common understanding of all the things being discussed.
Pinnock has the view that God has willingly relinquished his ability to know the future in full detail (what I labelled Kenotic Omniscience). The deficiencies were pointed out in his view based on the definition provided herein. It was noted that Pinnock does attempt to be as biblical as possible and holds Scripture in high regard. Though there will be disagreement with the conclusion in this paper, it is safe to say that Pinnock does care about the Christian faith and hold Christ at the center. Evangelicalism is a broad community that encompasses a treasure trove of views on the nature and character of God. Hopefully, with time there can be an expansion of understanding in these areas. I believe the Church Catholic should always seek to find the highest possible view of God and work out from there. Unity in the Church is important, but so is understanding God and his being, but we should not sacrifice one for the other.
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[3]
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[4]
William Hasker, God, Time, and Knowledge (Ithaca: Cornell University
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[5] J.P.
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Worldview (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2003), 182. The eBook reference
used states this section starts on page 182 but does not provide pagination
after that. Information located in Chapter 26, section 1.
[6]
Alfred R. Mele, “Free Will and Luck: Compatibilism versus Incompatibilism,” The
Monist 103, (2020): 262, doi: 10.1093/monist/onaa003.
[7] Paul
Helm, “The Augustinian-Calvinist View,” in Divine Foreknowledge: Four Views,
eds. James K. Beilby and Paul R. Eddy (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2001), 163.
[8] Hasker, God,
Time, and Knowledge, 187.
[9] Clark
Pinnock, Most Moved Mover: A Theology of God’s Openness (Eugene: Wipf
and Stock, 2001), 4.
[10] Ibid.
FN 9 and 10 are from his list of the main points of the openness model. Pinnock
states that John Sanders put forward the four points from which the two listed
here are taken from.
[11]
Pinnock, Openness, 22.
[12] Richard
Rice, “Biblical Support for a New Perspective,” in The Openness of God
(Downers Grove: IVP, 1994), 106. Location number in Kindle.
[13] Ibid,
119.
[14]
Pinnock, Openness, 1186.
[15] Clark
Pinnock, “The Work of the Spirit in the Interpretation of Holy Scripture from
the Perspective of a Charismatic Biblical Theologian,” Journal of
Pentecostal Theology 18 (2009), 158.
[16] Ibid,
159-161.
[17] Ibid,
161.
[18] Clark
Pinnock, “Open Theism: An Answer to My Critics,” Dialog: Journal of Theology
44, no. 3 (Sept 2005), 238.
[19] Ibid,
237. Pinnock states that he believes in a Triune God of love.
[20] Ibid. Emphasis
mine.
[21] Karl
Barth, Church Dogmatics IV/1, eds. G.W. Bromiley and T.F. Torrance (New
York: T & T Clark, 2010), 186.
[22]
Pinnock, Mover, 120.
[23] William
Lane Craig, “A Middle-Knowledge Response,” in Divine Foreknowledge: Four
Views, eds. James K. Beilby and Paul R. Eddy (Downers Grove: IVP
Academic, 2001), 55. This is Craig’s response to Greg Boyd.
[24] Bryan
Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 50.
[25] Thomas
E. Gaston, “The Influence of Platonism on the Early Apologists,” (2009): 573-575
and Litfin, Fathers, 41-56. Both sources reference those influence by
Plato but not that it was a matter of the language used in that cultural
setting to understand certain categories that were not normative within Jewish
thought.
[26]
Pinnock, Moved, 5. In this source, he actually states that God
sovereignly decided to make his actions contingent on our free actions. He has
stated elsewhere, precisely that God set aside his knowing abilities (almost a
kenosis of omniscience).
[27]
Pinnock, Moved, 85.
[28] The
critique is against the lack of method which can assist the Church or
interpreter from skewing or not accurately determining what each text means. In
the OT, Israel was provided information on how to determine if a prophet was
from God. The NT Christians had a similar idea. But if we allow what Pinnock
has provided in his article, there is no way to check and validate any
interpretation. This is the problem.
[29] Carl
Trueman, The Real Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Chicago: Moody
Publishers, 2011), 14. Trueman get this information from historian David
Bebbington and uses it for his case.
[30]
Pinnock, Moved, throughout.
[31] It
should be noted, this evaluation of Pinnock is solely based on his
understanding of omniscience. There are other aspects of Pinnock that should
give a reader pause. For example, Pinnock makes passing statements about God
potentially having a body and these kinds of small statements throughout his
work can be somewhat concerning because of their implications.
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